Supermassive blackhole influences star formation

A European team of astronomers led by Professor Kalliopi Dasyra of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, under participation of Dr. Thomas Bisbas, University of Cologne modelled several emission lines in Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) and Very Large Telescope (VLT) observations to measure the gas pressure in both jet-impacted clouds and ambient clouds. With these unprecedented measurements, published recently in Nature Astronomy, they discovered that the jets significantly change the internal and external pressure of molecular clouds in their path. Depending on which of the two pressures changes the most, both compression of clouds and triggering of star formation and dissipation of clouds and delaying of star formation are possible in the same galaxy. "Our results show that supermassive black holes, even though they are located at the centers of galaxies, could affect star formation in a galaxy-wide manner" said Professor Dasyra, adding that "studying the impact of pressure changes in the stability of clouds was key to the success of this project. Once few stars actually form in a wind, it is usually very hard to detect their signal on top of the signal of all other stars in the galaxy hosting the wind."

It is believed that supermassive black holes lie at the centers of most galaxies in our Universe. When particles that were infalling onto these black holes are trapped by magnetic fields, they can be ejected outwards and travel far inside galaxies in the form of enormous and powerful jets of plasma. These jets are often perpendicular to galactic disks. In IC 5063 however, a galaxy 156 million light years away, the jets are actually propagating within the disk, interacting with cold and dense molecular gas clouds. From this interaction, compression of jet-impacted clouds is theorized to be possible, leading to gravitational instabilities and eventually star formation due to the gas condensation.

For the experiment, the team used the emission of carbon monoxide (CO) and formyl cation (HCO+) provided by ALMA, and the emission of ionized sulfur and ionized nitrogen provided by VLT. They then used advanced and innovative astrochemical algorithms to pinpoint the environmental conditions in the outflow and in the surrounding medium. These environmental conditions contain information about the strength of the far-ultraviolet radiation of stars, the rate at which relativistic charged particles ionize the gas, and the mechanical energy deposited on the gas by the jets. Narrowing down these conditions revealed the densities and gas temperatures descriptive of different parts of this galaxy, which were then used to provide pressures.

"We have performed many thousands of astrochemical simulations to cover a wide range of possibilities that may exist in IC 5063" said co-author Dr. Thomas Bisbas, DFG Fellow of the University of Cologne and former postdoctoral researcher at the National Observatory of Athens. A challenging part of the work was to meticulously identify as many physical constraints as possible to the examined range that each parameter could have. "This way, we could get the optimal combination of physical parameters of clouds at different locations of the galaxy," said co-author Mr. Georgios Filippos Paraschos, Ph.D. student at the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy in Bonn and former Master's student at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens.

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How the intestine replaces and repairs itself

To act as a robust barrier against pathogens while also absorbing needed nutrients, the lining of the intestines must regenerate on a daily basis to remain equal to the task. The intestine's resident stem cells are responsible for meeting this need for constant repair and replenishment, but each stem cell faces decisions that depend on the overall conditions of the intestine and the needs of the moment. Bad decisions and poor coordination could result in intestinal diseases or cancer.

A new study suggests that stem cells are able to integrate cues from their surroundings and coordinate their behavior across the tissue through networks of vasculature in their close vicinity.

Rockefeller scientists found that lymphatic capillaries -- fine vessels that transport immune cells and drain fluids from tissues -- represent a signaling hub that communicates with stem cells to regulate their activity. With molecular guidance from the lymphatics, the stem cells produce daughter cells to repopulate the intestinal lining or self-renew to restock the stem cell reserve.

The findings, published in the journal Cell Stem Cell, provide new insights about primary intestinal components whose disrupted communication may contribute to intestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease. "The key to treating these diseases will be to figure out who talks to whom in this ecosystem and how we can reset the communication networks," says Rachel Niec, a clinical scholar in the laboratory of Elaine Fuchs.

Communications in the crypt

The intestinal stem cells reside in so-called crypts, found at the base of densely packed indentations in the intestinal lining. The stem cells may renew and stay in the crypt, or differentiate into specialized cells, which then migrate out of the crypt to replenish the gut lining. "To understand how stem cells balance self-renewal with differentiation, we needed a more complete picture of crypt niches," says Marina Schernthanner, a graduate student in the Fuchs lab.

To zoom in on the crypt, the team used a suite of techniques, including single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, which allowed them to identify cell types at specific locations and study their signaling molecules. The results showed that lymphatic capillaries, which form an intimate connection with the stem cells in the crypt, produce a number of proteins known to be important for stem cell functioning.

One previously underappreciated protein, REELIN, emerged as a top candidate for mediating communications between lymphatics and stem cells. By manipulating the amount of REELIN in lab-grown intestinal organoid cultures in some experiments and genetically suppressing it in mice in others, the researchers found that REELIN directly governs the regenerative behavior of intestinal stem cells.

The involvement of the lymphatic system in stem cell functioning is a relatively new concept. A previous study by the Fuchs team revealed that lymphatics are also closely involved with stem cells of the skin and play a key role in hair regeneration. There, however, it is the hair follicle stem cells that signal to lymphatic capillaries. By controlling their interactions with lymphatics, the stem cells synchronize hair regeneration across the tissue. "This suggests that lymphatics may be a conserved feature of stem cell niches, but their relationship to stem cells are likely tailored around the needs of each tissue," Niec says.

From Science Daily

New method to map the surface of the moon increases accuracy to unprecedented levels

Topography: The surface of the moon and rocky planets, Mars in particular, are of huge interest to anyone trying to explore our solar system. The surface must be known in as much detail as possible, for missions to land safely, or for any robotic vessel to drive across the surface. But until now, the methods to analyze images from e.g. orbiting spacecraft have entailed a huge work load and immense computer power -- with limited results. A project from now former PHD student at the Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Iris Fernandes, has changed that. Studying the limestone formation Stevns Klint in Denmark, she developed a method to interpret shadows in images, so the exact topography can be extracted.The method is even much quicker and less work-intensive. The result is now published Planetary and Space Science 218.

Human space exploration entails high levels of safety -- so precise images of the terrain are adamant

The topography of any surface will create shades, when the sunlight hits it. We can clearly see the shades in the pictures of e.g. the Moon, but we don't know the elevation of the terrain. So we can see the topography changes, but not how much! It is necessary to be able to see even very small features to ensure safe landing or movement of e.g. a rover. Not to mention the safety of astronauts.

If a rover can't see details, it could get stuck in sand surfaces or hit rocks -- and being able to see interesting geological formations to find rich geological environments for research purposes is also of great importance.

Former limitations in topography assessment have now been largely eradicated

When satellites orbit a planet, they can take pictures in reasonable quality of the surface. But in order to establish an interpretation of the exact topography, good enough for landing the hugely expensive equipment or perhaps even astronauts, a lot of ad hoc information still needs to be processed.

The method of using the shades existed before, but it was computationally inefficient, and still had to rely on assumptions. The new method uses a much more direct and precise calculation, it doesn't rely on a whole set of parameters to be fed into the computer, and it can even calculate the uncertainties and the accuracy.

"This method is fast, it is precise and it doesn't have to rely on any assumptions. Previously," Iris Fernandes says, "if you posed the question: How precise is the assessment of the topography -- there really wasn't a satisfactory answer.

Now the precise topography is revealed, and we can even quantify the uncertainties."

Scientific curiosity can lead you to surprising places

"I was involved in a project where we wanted to use pictures from Stevns Klint to model patterns in the surface. I even presented this method in a conference in L.A. But the shades presented a challenge, because the algorithm "saw" the shades as geological features.

It created a bias in the model. We needed to find ways to remove the shades, in order to remove the bias.

I was always interested in planets, and I knew the surface of the moon was being studied. There aren't many disturbing features on the Moon, so it was ideal for removing the bias.

When we filtered away the shades, we could see what they were "hiding," so to speak -- the surface shapes," Iris Fernandes explains.

Resolution of existing images presented a new problem -- and a new approach

When work on the Moon started, the discrepancy of the different resolutions in images and the topography data turned out to be tremendous. A new problem appeared, in other words. "How could we combine different sources of data in different resolutions?

It presented a huge mathematical problem -- and this is really what the study is about.

This is where former research had come to a stop. What we did differently than former attempts to solve this, was that we focused on the mathematics and narrowed it down to a challenging mathematical equation. Basically, to see if this equation could solve the problem.

And it did," Iris Fernandes smiles. "You could say that we, my supervisor, Professor Klaus Mosegaard and I, found the mathematical key to a door that had remained closed for many years."

The way forward

The focus now is improving the method even more. Wherever there are data available on rock-formation in the solar system, like the Moon, Mars, asteroids or the like, the method can be applied to extract precise topographic details.

The images used for this task, can be images from satellites or even the rovers themselves, presently on the ground on Mars -- or any mobile robot in the future.

The purposes for achieving correct topographic analysis can be different, it could be the safety of the equipment or astronauts or finding geologically interesting sites.

There is a wide array of possible applications, in other words. "It is a sort of computer vision thing," Iris Fernandes says: "When, for instance, a robot has some form of machinery to interact with the environment, the method can help in navigation or the "eye-hand coordination," because it is less computational "heavy" and thus faster.

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Plant study hints evolution may be predictable

Evolution has long been viewed as a rather random process, with the traits of species shaped by chance mutations and environmental events -- and therefore largely unpredictable.

But an international team of scientists led by researchers from Yale University and Columbia University has found that a particular plant lineage independently evolved three similar leaf types over and over again in mountainous regions scattered throughout the neotropics.

The findings provided the first examples in plants of a phenomenon known as "replicated radiation," in which similar forms evolve repeatedly within different regions, suggesting that evolution is not always such a random process but can be predicted.

The study is published July 18 in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution.

"The findings demonstrate how predictable evolution can actually be, with organismal development and natural selection combining to produce the same forms again and again under certain circumstances," said Yale's Michael Donoghue, Sterling Professor Emeritus of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology and co-corresponding author. "Maybe evolutionary biology can become much more of a predictive science than we ever imagined in the past."

For the study, the research team studied the genetics and morphology of the plant lineage Viburnum, a genus of flowering plants that began to spread south from Mexico into Central and South America some 10 million years ago. Donoghue studied this same plant group for his Ph.D. dissertation at Harvard 40 years ago. At the time, he argued in favor of an alternative theory in which large, hair-covered leaves and small smooth leaves evolved early in the evolution of the group and then both forms migrated separately, being dispersed by birds, through the various mountain ranges.

The new genetic analyses reported in the paper, however, show that the two different leaf types evolved independently, in parallel, in each of a number of mountain regions.

"I came to the wrong conclusion because I lacked the relevant genomic data back in the 1970s," Donoghue said.

The team found that a very similar set of leaf types evolved in nine of 11 regions studied. However, the full array of leaf types may have yet to evolve in places where Viburnum has only more recently migrated. For instance, the mountains of Bolivia lack the large hairy leaf types found in other wetter areas with little sunshine in the cloud forest in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.

"These plants arrived in Bolivia less than a million years ago, so we predict that the large, hairy leaf form will eventually evolve in Bolivia as well," Donoghue said.

Several examples of replicated radiation have been found in animals, such as Anolis lizards in the Caribbean. In that case, the same set of body forms, or "ectomorphs," evolved independently on several different islands. With a plant example now in hand, evolutionary biologists will try to discover the general circumstances under which solid predictions can be made about evolutionary trajectories.

"This collaborative work, spanning decades, has revealed a wonderful new system to study evolutionary adaptation," said Ericka Edwards, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Yale and co-corresponding author of the paper. "Now that we have established the pattern, our next challenges are to better understand the functional significance of these leaf types and the underlying genetic architecture that enables their repeated emergence."

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Just 10 financial actors hold the key to climate change

A new report has identified the 10 financial actors with the most influence on the fossil fuel economy and outlines the decisive role they can play in helping de-carbonize our future.

The study found that the top 10 most influential actors, including investment advisors, governments, and sovereign wealth funds from around the world, own 49.5 per cent of potential emissions from the world's largest energy firms.

"This shows us that both investors and governments can be at the forefront of change if citizens and clients urge them to de-carbonize," said Truzaar Dordi, lead researcher from the University of Waterloo. "A concentrated number of investors with the potential to influence the trajectory of the fossil fuel industry is either a problem, or an opportunity, depending on how you see things."

To arrive at their list, the researchers used a novel scoring mechanism blending the financial actor's fossil fuel holdings and investment in the world's 200 largest fossil fuel firms.

"If they're serious, capital markets can enable a low-carbon transition within the top coal, oil and gas reserve owners in the world," said Dordi. "Recent pledges to reduce carbon exposure in investment portfolios and engagement with the fossil fuel industry indicate we may already be moving in that direction."

The paper outlines specific ways these 10 governments and private investment advisors can make changes that will have a transformative impact in the fight against climate change. Some recommendations include public disclosure of a scheduled phase-out of fossil fuel financing, an assessment of a portfolio's exposure to climate risk in a 2°C world, and an alignment of investment portfolios with a 1.5°C scenario.

"Individually, reducing the demand for fossil fuels by driving and flying less and turning off the air-conditioner are great. We should keep doing that. But we also need to reduce our production of fossil fuels, which these 10 actors can lead. Without them, we simply won't have what it takes to meet our emissions targets and avoid catastrophe."

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Paper wasps form abstract concept of 'same' and 'different'

In a series of studies over more than 20 years, University of Michigan evolutionary biologist Elizabeth Tibbetts and her colleagues have demonstrated that paper wasps, despite their tiny brains, have an impressive capacity to learn, remember and make social distinctions about others.

The researchers showed that paper wasps recognize individuals of their species by variations in their facial markings and that they behave more aggressively toward wasps with unfamiliar markings.

They established that paper wasps have surprisingly long memories and base their actions on what they remember of previous social interactions with other wasps. And they provided the first evidence of transitive inference -- a behavior that resembles logical reasoning -- in a nonvertebrate animal, the lowly paper wasp.

Now, Tibbetts and her students are reporting the first evidence that paper wasps can form abstract concepts. Strikingly, the wasps were also able to transfer what they learned through visual training into a different sensory modality: the sense of smell.

The study used laboratory tasks to test whether paper wasps (Polistes fuscatus) could learn and apply one of the most basic abstract concepts: the idea of sameness and difference.

The wasps were trained to distinguish between pairs of visual or olfactory stimuli (two colored bits of paper, two photos of wasp faces, or two chemical odors) that were either identical or different. One pair of stimuli was associated with a mild but unpleasant electrical shock, the other was not.

Then the stinging insects were exposed to novel pairs of stimuli (either identical or different) and tested on their ability to avoid an electric shock by selecting the "correct" pair -- the one associated with safety.

The previously trained wasps made the correct choice more than 80% of the time, according to the researchers. The team's findings were published online July 20 in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

"Our findings show the wasps learned the general concept of sameness and difference and applied it to new samples and new types of stimuli," said Tibbetts, a professor in the U-M Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.

"Abstract concepts are thought to be associated with high levels of cognitive sophistication, so there has been much interest in which species can form and use them. This is the first time anyone has shown that wasps can form abstract concepts."

Historically, only primates were thought to be capable of same-different concept learning. But subsequent research found evidence of same-different concepts in many animals, including crows, pigeons, parrots, dolphins, ducklings and honeybees.

Now, the U-M researchers are adding paper wasps to the list. The first author of the Proceedings of the Royal Society B study is Chloe Weise, a former U-M master's student who graduated this spring.

"Concept learning is a cornerstone of challenging tasks like language, analogy and consciousness," Weise said. "Our results add to a growing body of evidence that the miniature nervous systems of insects do not limit sophisticated behaviors."

For the study, female paper wasps were collected on their nests in areas surrounding Ann Arbor, Michigan. The wasps and their nests were housed in the lab and were given water, sugar and waxworms for food.

During training and testing, individual wasps were placed inside a small balsa wood-and-plexiglass chamber to determine whether they could learn and apply same-different concepts.

The wasps were trained and tested using a method called the simultaneous two-item same-different task. Three types of stimuli were used in the study: colored paper, images of wasp faces and the scents of chemicals called alkenes, which resemble the odors that wasps use to identify nestmates.

The laboratory tests showed that wasps trained with visual stimuli were able to apply the concept of sameness and difference to olfactory stimuli.

"Remarkably, wasps applied the concept of sameness and difference across sensory modalities, as they transferred concepts learned in the visual domain to the odor domain," Weise said. "Therefore, our results illustrate that Polistes are able to master abstract interrelationships between stimuli."

Paper wasps are the second invertebrate shown to form same-different concepts, after honeybees. Paper wasps and honeybees have considerably smaller brains (fewer than 1 million neurons) than vertebrates known to form same-different concepts. Pigeons, for example, have brains with 310 million neurons, and macaque brains have 6 billion neurons.

Interestingly, paper wasps in this study achieved more than 80% correct choices after training involving just eight trials with eight stimulus pairs, while pigeons require 100 unique stimuli and thousands of trials to learn same-different concepts, according to Tibbetts.

The paper wasps used in the current study may have been more adept than pigeons at forming concepts because they were trained with different methods, including the use of biologically relevant stimuli, Tibbetts said.

"We trained and tested wasps using wasp face images, colors and odors," she said. "All three types of stimuli are important in wild wasp behavior."

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Astronomers develop novel way to 'see' the first stars through the fog of the early Universe

A team of astronomers has developed a method that will allow them to 'see' through the fog of the early Universe and detect light from the first stars and galaxies.

The researchers, led by the University of Cambridge, have developed a methodology that will allow them to observe and study the first stars through the clouds of hydrogen that filled the Universe about 378,000 years after the Big Bang.

Observing the birth of the first stars and galaxies has been a goal of astronomers for decades, as it will help explain how the Universe evolved from the emptiness after the Big Bang to the complex realm of celestial objects we observe today, 13.8 billion years later.

The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) -- a next-generation telescope due to be completed by the end of the decade -- will likely be able to make images of the earliest light in the Universe, but for current telescopes the challenge is to detect the cosmological signal of the stars through the thick hydrogen clouds.

The signal that astronomers aim to detect is expected to be approximately one hundred thousand times weaker than other radio signals coming also from the sky -- for example, radio signals originating in our own galaxy.

Using a radio telescope itself introduces distortions to the signal received, which can completely obscure the cosmological signal of interest. This is considered an extreme observational challenge in modern radio cosmology. Such instrument-related distortions are commonly blamed as the major bottleneck in this type of observation.

Now the Cambridge-led team has developed a methodology to see through the primordial clouds and other sky noise signals, avoiding the detrimental effect of the distortions introduced by the radio telescope. Their methodology, part of the REACH (Radio Experiment for the Analysis of Cosmic Hydrogen) experiment, will allow astronomers to observe the earliest stars through their interaction with the hydrogen clouds, in the same way we would infer a landscape by looking at shadows in the fog.

Their method will improve the quality and reliability of observations from radio telescopes looking at this unexplored key time in the development of the Universe. The first observations from REACH are expected later this year.

The results are reported today in the journal Nature Astronomy.

"At the time when the first stars formed, the Universe was mostly empty and composed mostly of hydrogen and helium," said Dr Eloy de Lera Acedo from Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory, the paper's lead author.

He added: "Because of gravity, the elements eventually came together and the conditions were right for nuclear fusion, which is what formed the first stars. But they were surrounded by clouds of so-called neutral hydrogen, which absorb light really well, so it's hard to detect or observe the light behind the clouds directly."

In 2018, another research group (running the 'Experiment to Detect the Global Epoch of Reioniozation Signature' -- or EDGES) published a result that hinted at a possible detection of this earliest light, but astronomers have been unable to repeat the result -- leading them to believe that the original result may have been due to interference from the telescope being used.

"The original result would require new physics to explain it, due to the temperature of the hydrogen gas, which should be much cooler than our current understanding of the Universe would allow. Alternatively, an unexplained higher temperature of the background radiation -- typically assumed to be the well-known Cosmic Microwave Background -- could be the cause" said de Lera Acedo.

He added: "If we can confirm that the signal found in that earlier experiment really was from the first stars, the implications would be huge."

In order to study this period in the Universe's development, often referred to as the Cosmic Dawn, astronomers study the 21-centimetre line -- an electromagnetic radiation signature from hydrogen in the early Universe. They look for a radio signal that measures the contrast between the radiation from the hydrogen and the radiation behind the hydrogen fog.

The methodology developed by de Lera Acedo and his colleagues uses Bayesian statistics to detect a cosmological signal in the presence of interference from the telescope and general noise from the sky, so that the signals can be separated.

To do this, state-of-the-art techniques and technologies from different fields have been required.

The researchers used simulations to mimic a real observation using multiple antennas, which improves the reliability of the data -- earlier observations have relied on a single antenna.

"Our method jointly analyses data from multiple antennas and across a wider frequency band than equivalent current instruments. This approach will give us the necessary information for our Bayesian data analysis," said de Lera Acedo.

He added: "In essence, we forgot about traditional design strategies and instead focused on designing a telescope suited to the way we plan to analyse the data -- something like an inverse design. This could help us measure things from the Cosmic Dawn and into the epoch of reionisation, when hydrogen in the Universe was reionised."

The telescope's construction is currently being finalised at the Karoo radio reserve in South Africa, a location chosen for its excellent conditions for radio observations of the sky. It is far away from human-made radio frequency interference, for example television and FM radio signals.

The REACH team of over 30 researchers is multidisciplinary and distributed worldwide, with experts in fields such as theoretical and observational cosmology, antenna design, radio frequency instrumentation, numerical modelling, digital processing, big data and Bayesian statistics. REACH is co-led by the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa.

Professor de Villiers, co-lead of the project at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa said: "Although the antenna technology used for this instrument is rather simple, the harsh and remote deployment environment, and the strict tolerances required in the manufacturing, make this a very challenging project to work on."

He added: "We are extremely excited to see how well the system will perform, and have full confidence we'll make that elusive detection."

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Why Jupiter doesn't have rings like Saturn

Because it's bigger, Jupiter ought to have larger, more spectacular rings than Saturn has. But new UC Riverside research shows Jupiter's massive moons prevent that vision from lighting up the night sky.

"It's long bothered me why Jupiter doesn't have even more amazing rings that would put Saturn's to shame," said UCR astrophysicist Stephen Kane, who led the research.

"If Jupiter did have them, they'd appear even brighter to us, because the planet is so much closer than Saturn." Kane also had questions about whether Jupiter once had fantastic rings and lost them. It is possible for ring structures to be temporary.

To understand the reason Jupiter currently looks the way it does, Kane and his graduate student Zhexing Li ran a dynamic computer simulation accounting for the orbits of Jupiter's four main moons, as well as the orbit of the planet itself, and information about the time it takes for rings to form. Their results are now online, soon to be published in the Planetary Science journal.

Saturn's rings are largely made of ice, some of which may have come from comets, which are also largely made of ice. If moons are massive enough, their gravity can toss the ice out of a planet's orbit, or change the orbit of the ice enough so that it collides with the moons.

"We found that the Galilean moons of Jupiter, one of which is the largest moon in our solar system, would very quickly destroy any large rings that might form," Kane said. As a result, it is unlikely that Jupiter had large rings at any point in its past.

"Massive planets form massive moons, which prevents them from having substantial rings," Kane said.

All four giant planets in our solar system -- Saturn, Neptune, Uranus and also Jupiter -- do in fact have rings. However, both Neptune and Jupiter's rings are so flimsy they're difficult to view with traditional stargazing instruments.

Coincidentally, some of the recent images from the newly commissioned James Webb Space Telescope included pictures of Jupiter, in which the faint rings are visible.

"We didn't know these ephemeral rings existed until the Voyager spacecraft went past because we couldn't see them," Kane said.

Uranus has rings that are aren't as large but are more substantial than Saturn's. Going forward, Kane intends to run simulations of the conditions on Uranus to see what the lifetime of that planet's rings might be.

Some astronomers believe Uranus is tipped over on its side as the result of a collision the planet had with another celestial body. Its rings could be the remains of that impact.

Beyond their beauty, rings help astronomers understand the history of a planet, because they offer evidence of collisions with moons or comets that may have happened in the past. The shape and size of the rings, as well as the composition of the material, offers an indication about the type of event that formed them.

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Rising numbers of exotic snakebites reported in the UK

Exotic snakebites recorded in the UK have "soared" over the course of a decade, as numbers of the exotic pet increase -- a peer-reviewed study in Clinical Toxicologyreveals.

In 11-years, 300 patients with exotic snakebite were registered by the UK National Poisons Information Service (NPIS). This included 72 children aged 17 years or under and among those, 13 were aged just 5 years or less. No children had severe injuries.

Nine patients were bitten twice and one patient, some three times.

The new study, which included an audit of enquiries registered by the NPIS between 2009 and 2020 by experts from leading institutions across the UK, shows a total of 321 exotic snakebites from 68 different species.

Of those bitten, 15 had severe symptoms. This included a reptile conservationist who had previously survived a bite from an eastern green mamba but died after being bitten by a king cobra.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) considers more than 250 species of poisonous snake worldwide as medically important -- most native to Asia, Africa, Latin America and Oceania. But the possibility of encountering these dangerous species is no longer limited by geography. In recent years, snake ownership has increased in popularity in the UK. It is estimated that around one in 100 households now own a pet snake.

"The prospect of being bitten by an exotic (non-native) snake (in the UK) is still remote, with bites typically occurring in those keeping such snakes as part of their occupation or hobby," states lead author Pardeep Jagpal, from the National Poisons Information Service (Birmingham Unit). "Rapid access to expert clinical advice and the availability of appropriate anti-venom are important considerations when these accidents occur."

Advice to NHS healthcare professionals on managing exotic snakebites is available in the UK on a 24-hour basis through the NPIS. The authors examined all telephone calls involving snakebites that were received by the service between January 2009 and December 2020. They excluded enquiries about the European adder -- the only species of poisonous snake native to the UK -- or where the identity of the snake was unknown.

Of the 321 exotic snakebites in 300 patients:
 

• 207 (64.5%) of bites occurred in males -- and 10 people were bitten on more than one occasion.
• 72 (22.5%) of bites occurred in children -- 13 of whom were aged five or under.
• 184 (57.3%) of bites were inflicted by snakes of the family Colubridae, including hognose snakes, king snakes and false water cobras.
• 30 (9.3%) of bites were by Viperidae species, including western diamondback rattlesnakes and copperheads.
• 14 (4.3%) of bites were by Elapidae species -- most commonly by Indian cobras, monocled cobras and king cobras.

The majority of these exotic snakebites resulted in either no symptoms or mild to moderate symptoms. However, fifteen bites caused severe symptoms -- all of which were caused by front-fanged Viperidae or Elapidae. In total, seventeen people received antivenom treatment.

"Our results show an overall increase in the number of exotic snakebites reported to the NPIS compared to previous figures," says co-author the University of Oxford's Professor David Warrell, a world leading figure in tropical medicine, and the founding director of the Centre for Tropical Medicine and Wellcome Trust-Mahidol University Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Programme, Thailand.

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Do benefits of physical, mental activity on thinking differ for men and women?

Studies have shown that physical and mental activity help preserve thinking skills and delay dementia. A new study suggests that these benefits may vary for men and women. The study is published in the July 20, 2022, online issue of Neurology®, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.

The study looked at the effects of physical and mental activities, such as reading, going to classes, or playing cards or games, on cognitive reserve in the areas of thinking speed and memory. Cognitive reserve is the buffer that occurs when people have strong thinking skills even when their brains show signs of the underlying changes associated with cognitive impairment and dementia.

"We found that greater physical activity was associated with greater thinking speed reserve in women, but not in men," said study author Judy Pa, PhD, of the University of California, San Diego. "Taking part in more mental activities was associated with greater thinking speed reserve for both men and women."

Greater physical activity was not associated with memory reserve in men or women.

The study involved 758 people with an average age of 76. Some had no thinking or memory problems, some had mild cognitive impairment, and some had dementia. The participants had brain scans and took thinking speed and memory tests. To calculate cognitive reserve, people's thinking tests scores were compared against the changes in the brain associated with dementia, such as the total volume of the hippocampus, a key brain region impacted by Alzheimer's disease.

People were also asked about their usual weekly physical activity. For mental activity, they were asked whether they participated in three types of activities in the past 13 months: reading magazines, newspapers or books; going to classes; and playing cards, games or bingo. They were given one point for each type of activity, for a maximum of three points.

For mental activity, participants averaged 1.4 points. For physical activity, participants took part in an average of at least 15 minutes per week of activities that elevate heart rates such as brisk walking and biking.

Pa said that each additional mental activity people participated in corresponded to 13 fewer years of aging in their processing speed in their thinking skills -- 17 years among men and 10 years among women.

"As we have arguably few-to-no effective treatments for Alzheimer's disease, prevention is crucial. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of treatment," Pa said. "To know that people could potentially improve their cognitive reserve by taking simple steps such as going to classes at the community center, playing bingo with their friends or spending more time walking or gardening is very exciting."

Pa said that based on the effect sizes seen in the study, a doubling of the amount of physical activity would be equivalent to an estimated 2.75 fewer years of aging when it comes to women's processing speed in their thinking skills.

Researchers also looked at whether the relationship between physical and mental activities and cognitive reserve was affected by the gene that carries the strongest risk for Alzheimer's, called APOE e4. They found that for women, having the gene lessens the effects of the beneficial relationship between physical and mental activities and cognitive reserve.

The study does not prove that physical and mental activities help improve cognitive reserve. It only shows an association.

A limitation of the study was that people reported their own physical and mental activity, so they may not have remembered correctly. Also, structural and societal factors that affect cognitive reserve, such as education, were not measured in the study.

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A new method to detect exoplanets

In recent years, a large number of exoplanets have been found around single 'normal' stars. New research shows that there may be exceptions to this trend. Researchers from The Autonomous University of Nuevo León (UANL), The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and New York University Abu Dhabi suggest a new way of detecting dim bodies, including planets, orbiting exotic binary stars known as Cataclysmic Variables (CVs).

CVs are binary star systems in which the two stars are in extremely close proximity to each other; so close that the less massive object transfers mass to the more massive. CVs are typically formed of a small, cool type of star known as a red dwarf star, and a hot, dense star -- a white dwarf. Red dwarf stars have a mass between 0.07 and 0.30 solar masses and a radius of around 20% of the Sun's, while white dwarf stars have a typical mass of around 0.75 Solar masses and a very small radius similar to that of planet Earth.

In the CV system, the transfer of matter from the small star forms an accretion disk around the compact, more massive star. The brightness of a CV system mainly comes from this disk, and overpowers the light coming from the two stars. A third dim body orbiting a CV can influence the mass transfer rate between the two stars, and hence the brightness of the entire system. The method described in the new work is based on the change of brightness in the accretion disk due to perturbations of the third body that orbits around the inner two stars.

In their research, team leader Dr Carlos Chavez and his collaborators have estimated the mass and distance of a third body orbiting four different CVs using the changes in the brightness of each system. According to calculations carried out by the team, such brightness variations have very long periods in comparison to the orbital periods in the triple system. Two out of the four CVs appear to have bodies resembling planets in orbit around them.

Dr Chavez comments on the new findings, "Our work has proven that a third body can perturb a cataclysmic variable in such a way that can induce changes in brightness in the system. These perturbations can explain both the very long periods that have been observed -- between 42 and 265 days- and the amplitude of those changes in brightness." He adds, "Of the four systems we studied, our observations suggest that two of the four have objects of planetary mass in orbit around them."

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When did the genetic variations that make us human emerge?

The study of the genomes of our closest relatives, the Neanderthals and Denisovans, has opened up new research paths that can broaden our understanding of the evolutionary history of Homo sapiens. A study led by the University of Barcelona has made an estimation of the time when some of the genetic variants that characterise our species emerged. It does so by analysing mutations that are very frequent in modern human populations, but not in these other species of archaic humans.

The results, published in the journal Scientific Reports, show two moments in which mutations accumulated: one around 40,000 years ago, associated with the growth of the Homo sapiens population and its departure from Africa, and an older one, more than 100,000 years ago, related to the time of the greatest diversity of types of Homo sapiens in Africa.

"The understanding of the deep history of our species is expanding rapidly. However, it is difficult to determine when the genetic variants that distinguish us from other human species emerged. In this study, we have placed species-specific variants on a timeline. We have discovered how these variants accumulate over time, reflecting events such as the point of divergence between Homo sapiens and other human species around 100,000 years ago," says Alejandro Andirkó, first author of this article, which was part of his doctoral thesis at the UB.

The study, led by Cedric Boeckx, ICREA research professor in the section of General Linguistics and member of the Institute of Complex Systems of the UB (UBICS), included the participation of Juan Moriano, UB researcher, Alessandro Vitriolo and Giuseppe Testa, experts from the University of Milan and the European Institute of Oncology, and Martin Kuhlwilm, researcher at the University of Vienna.

Predominance of behavioural and facial-related variations

The results of the research study also show differences between evolutionary periods. Specifically, they highlight the predominance of genetic variants related to behaviour and facial structure -- key characteristics in the differentiation of our species from other human species -- more than 300,000 years ago, a date that coincides with the available fossil and archaeological evidence. "We have discovered sets of genetic variants which affect the evolution of the face and which we have dated between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago, the period just prior to the dating of the earliest fossils of our species, such as the ones discovered at the Jebel Irhoud archaeological site in Morocco," notes Andirkó.

The researchers also analysed variants related to the brain, the organ that can best help explain key features of the rich repertoire of behaviours associated with Homo sapiens. Specifically, they dated variants which medical studies conducted in present-day humans have linked to the volume of the cerebellum, corpus callosum and other structures. "We found that brain tissues have a particular genomic expression profile at different times in our history; that is, certain genes related to neural development were more highly expressed at certain times," says the researcher.

Supporting the mosaic nature of the evolution of Homo sapiens

These results complement an idea that is dominant in evolutionary anthropology: that there is no linear history of human species, but that different branches of our evolutionary tree coexisted and often intersected. "The breadth of the range of human diversity in the past has surprised anthropologists. Even within Homo sapiens there are fossils, such as the ones I mentioned earlier from Jebel Irhoud, which, because of their features, were thought to belong to another species. That's why we say that human beings have lived a mosaic evolution," he notes.

"Our results," the researcher continues, "offer a picture of how our genetics changed, which fits this idea, as we found no evidence of evolutionary changes that depended on one or a several key mutations," he says.

Application of machine learning techniques

The methodology used in the study was based on a Genealogical Estimation of Variant Age method, developed by researchers at the University of Oxford. Once they had this estimation, they applied a machine learning tool to predict which genes have changed the most in certain time windows and which tissues these genes may have impacted. Specifically, they used ExPecto, a deep learning tool that uses a convolutional network -- a type of computational model -- to predict gene expression levels and function from a DNA sequence.

"Since there are no data on the genomic expression of variants in the past, this tool is an approach to a problem that has not been addressed until now. Although the use of machine learning prediction is increasingly common in the clinical world, as far as we know, nobody has tried to predict the consequences of genomic changes over time," notes Andirkó.

The importance of the perinatal phase in the brain development of our species

In a previous study, the same UB team, together with the researcher Raül Gómez Buisán, used genomic information from archaic humans. In that study they analysed genomic deserts, regions of the genome of our species where there are no genetic fragments of Neanderthals or Denisovans, and which, moreover, have been subjected to positive pressure in our species: that is, they have accumulated more mutations than would have been expected by neutral evolution. The researchers studied the expression of genes -- i.e., which proteins code for different functions -- found in desert regions throughout brain development, from prenatal to adult stages, covering sixteen brain structures. The results showed differences in gene expression in the cerebellum, striatum and thalamus. "These results bring into focus the relevance of brain structures beyond the neocortex, which has traditionally dominated research on the evolution of the human brain," says Juan Moriano.

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The size of mammal ancestors' ear canals reveal when warm-bloodedness evolved

Warm-bloodedness is a key mammal trait, but it's been a mystery when our ancestors evolved it. A new study in Nature points to an unlikely source for telling a fossil animal's body temperature: the size of tiny structures in their inner ears. The fluid in our ears becomes runnier at higher temperatures, so animals with warm bodies don't need as big of canals for it to flow through. Turns out, mammal ancestors became warm-blooded nearly 20 million years later than previously thought.

One of the things that makes mammals, mammals is that we're warm-blooded -- our bodies have high metabolisms that maintain our internal temperature independent of our surroundings, unlike cold-blooded animals like lizards that have to bask in the sun. Among modern animals, only mammals and birds are warm-blooded, and our ability to keep ourselves warm has enabled mammals to survive in icy weather and make long migrations. But it's been a mystery exactly when mammals evolved their high metabolisms. In a new study in Nature, scientists point to an unlikely source for determining when ancient mammal ancestors became warm-blooded: the size of tiny structures in their inner ears.

It's hard to tell whether a fossil animal was warm-blooded -- we can't take the temperature of a creature that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, and we can only guess at whether its behavior matched an active, warm-blooded metabolism or a slower cold-blooded one. But a team of researchers led by London's Natural History Museum, the University of Lisbon's Instituto Superior Técnico, and the Field Museum in Chicago realized that animals' ears provide an indirect clue about their body temperatures.

All vertebrate animals' ears contain tiny canals filled with fluid that helps us balance. The viscosity, or runniness, of that fluid changes based on temperature, and our inner ears have evolved different sizes so that it can flow correctly. Cold-blooded animals' ear fluid is cooler and thicker, so it needs wider spaces to travel through, while warm-blooded animals have runnier ear fluid, so our semicircular canals don't need to be as big.

"Until now, semicircular canals were generally used to predict locomotion of fossil organisms. However, by carefully looking at their biomechanics, we figured that we could also use them to infer body temperatures," says Romain David, a post-doctoral researcher at the Natural History Museum and one of the study's lead authors. "This is because, like honey, the fluid contained inside semicircular canals gets less viscous when temperature increases, impacting function. Hence, during the transition to endothermy, morphological adaptations were required to keep optimal performances, and we could track them in mammal ancestors."

To track these evolutionary changes, the researchers compared the sizes of the inner ear canals of 341 animals, including 243 living species and 64 extinct ones. They found that mammal ancestors didn't develop the kinds of inner ear structures ideal for warm-blooded animals until 233 million years ago -- nearly 20 million years later than scientists had previously thought warm-bloodedness evolved. And, based on when those differently-sized semicircular canals showed up in the fossil record, it seems that when mammal ancestors did evolve warm-bloodedness, it happened much more quickly than scientists had thought, around the same time that proto-mammals started to evolve whiskers, fur, and specialized backbones. The evolution of fur and warm-bloodedness at about the same time especially make sense because fur traps the body heat generated by a higher metabolism, helping keep the body at the high temperature it needs to thrive.

"Contrary to current scientific thinking, our paper surprisingly demonstrates that the acquisition of endothermy seems to have occurred very quickly in geological terms, in less than a million years," says Ricardo Araújo, junior researcher at Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon and one of the paper's lead authors. "It was not a gradual, slow process over tens of millions of years as previously thought, but maybe was attained quickly when triggered by novel mammal-like metabolic pathways and origin of fur."

The study's senior author, Ken Angielczyk, says he's excited by how the study helps answer one of the longest-standing questions about the evolution of mammals.

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New fossil shows four-legged fishapod that returned to the water while Tiktaalik ventured onto land

A meme has been circulating online during the pandemic featuring Tiktaalik roseae, the iconic, four-legged "fishapod" that first made the transition from water to land 375 million years ago. Most variations show Tiktaalik poking its head out of the water and ready to crawl ashore, while an out of frame hand threatens it with a rolled-up newspaper or a stick. The joke is that those of us exhausted by the modern world wish we could go back in time, shoo it back into the water, and stop evolution in its tracks, sparing ourselves the present day of war, pestilence, and internet memes.

As it turns out, one of Tiktaalik's close relatives did just that, opting to return to living in open water instead of venturing onto land. A new study from the laboratory of Neil Shubin, PhD, who co-discovered Tiktaalik in 2004, describes a fossil species that closely resembles Tiktaalik but has features that made it more suited to life in the water than its adventurous cousin. Qikiqtania wakei was small -- just 30 inches long -- compared to Tiktaalik, which could grow up to nine feet. The new fossil includes partial upper and lower jaws, portions of the neck, and scales. Mostly importantly, it also features a complete pectoral fin with a distinct humerus bone that lacks the ridges that would indicate where muscles and joints would be on a limb geared toward walking on land. Instead, Qikiqtania's upper arm was smooth and curved, more suited for a life paddling underwater. The uniqueness of the arm bones of Qikiqtania suggest that it returned to paddling the water after its ancestors began to use their appendages for walking.

"At first we thought it could be a juvenile Tiktaalik, because it was smaller and maybe some of those processes hadn't developed yet," Shubin said. "But the humerus is smooth and boomerang shaped, and it doesn't have the elements that would support it pushing up on land. It's remarkably different and suggests something new."

The paper, "A New Elpistostegalian from the Late Devonian of the Canadian Arctic and the diversity of stem tetrapods," was published July 20, 2022, in Nature.

A prehistoric pandemic project

Shubin, who is the Robert R. Bensley Distinguished Service Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the University of Chicago, found the fossildays before Tiktaalik was discovered, at a site about one mile east on southern Ellesmere Island in the territory of Nunavut in northern Arctic Canada. The name Qikiatania comes from the Inuktitut word Qikiqtaaluk or Qikiqtani, the traditional name for the region where the fossil site is located. The species designation wakei is in memory of the late David Wake, an eminent evolutionary biologist from the University of California at Berkeley.

Shubin and his field partner, Ted Daeschler, PhD, from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, collected the specimens from a quarry after spotting a few promising looking rocks with distinctive, white scales on the surface. But they sat in storage, mostly unexamined, while the team focused on preparing Tiktaalik.

Fifteen years later, the discovery of Qikiqtania became another pandemic story. Postdoctoral researchers Justin Lemberg, PhD, and Tom Stewart, PhD, CT-scanned one of the larger rock specimens in March 2020 and realized that it contained a pectoral fin. Unfortunately, it was too deep inside the rock to get a high-resolution image, and they couldn't do much more with it once the pandemic forced labs to close.

"We were trying to collect as much CT-data of the material as we could before the lockdown, and the very last piece we scanned was a large, unassuming block with only a few flecks of scales visible from the surface," said Lemberg, who is now doing cultural resource management fieldwork in Southern California. "We could hardly believe it when the first, grainy images of a pectoral fin came into view. We knew we could collect a better scan of the block if we had the time, but that was March 13th, 2020, and the University shut down all non-essential operations the following week."

In the summer of 2020 when campus facilities reopened, they contacted Mark Webster, PhD, Associate Professor of Geophysical Sciences, who had access to a saw that could trim pieces off the specimen so that a CT scanner could get closer and produce a better image. Stewart and Lemberg carefully marked the boundaries on the block and arranged an exchange outside their lab in Culver Hall. The resulting images revealed a nearly complete pectoral fin and upper limb, including the distinctive humerus bone.

"That's what blew our minds," Shubin said. "This was by no means a fascinating block at first, but we realized during the COVID lockdown when we couldn't get in the lab that the original scan wasn't good enough and we needed to trim the block. And when we did, look at what happened. It gave us something exciting to work on during the pandemic. It's a fabulous story."

Glimpses into vertebrate history

Qikiqtania is slightly older than Tiktaalik but not by much. The team's analysis of where it sits on the tree of life places it, like Tiktaalik, adjacent to the earliest creatures known to have finger-like digits. But even though Qikiqtania's distinct pectoral fin was more suited for swimming, it wasn't entirely fish-like either. Its curved paddle shape was a distinct adaptation, different from the jointed, muscled legs or fan-shaped fins we see in tetrapods and fish today.

We tend to think animals evolved in a straight line that connects their prehistoric forms to some living creature today, but Qikiqtania shows that some animals stayed on a different path that ultimately didn't work out. Maybe that's a lesson for those wishing Tiktaalik had stayed in the water with it.

"Tiktaalik is often treated as a transitional animal because it's easy to see the stepwise pattern of changes from life in the water to life on land. But we know that in evolution things aren't always so simple," said Stewart, who will be joining the faculty at Penn State University this summer. "We don't often get glimpses into this part of vertebrate history. Now we're starting to uncover that diversity and to get a sense of the ecology and unique adaptations of these animals. It's more than simple transformation with just a limited number of species."

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Researchers capture the first example of an extremely bright, and fast-evolving astronomical event in the distant universe

A team of astronomers have discovered a mysterious short-duration astronomical event, or transient, that is as bright as a superluminous supernova, but evolving much faster, reports a study in The Astrophysical Journal Letters published on July 12.

The universe is full of energetic transient phenomena, astronomical events that occur over a short period of time. For example, most massive stars end their lives by exploding spectacularly, known as a supernova, a major type of transients. In order to understand the origin of these transient phenomena, various time-domain surveys have been carried out in the past few decades. As more and more transients have been discovered, researchers began noticing some new transient types in recent years.

To figure out the nature of various transient phenomena, an international transient survey project called "MUltiband Subaru Survey for Early-phase Supernovae" (MUSSES), led by Ji-an Jiang, a former Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (Kavli IPMU) Project Researcher (currently postdoctoral fellow at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ)) attempt to catch various fast-evolving transients within one day of their occurrence, using the most powerful survey facility in the world, the Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) mounted on the 8.2-m Subaru telescope.

By carrying out consecutive Subaru/HSC observations in December 2020, 20 fast-evolving transients have been discovered, and one of them, MUSSES2020J (AT 2020afay), caught Jiang's attention.

"MUSSES2020J was discovered with very low brightness on December 11 in 2020, and its brightness showed significant brightening during our observation. More surprisingly, the fast light curve evolution and very high redshift of the transient confirmed by follow-up observations indicate that the brightness of MUSSES2020J was about 50 times higher, while the rising phase was much shorter than those of normal supernovae, which indeed show high similarity to a recently discovered peculiar transient, AT 2018cow. We suggest calling these extreme transients as Fast Blue Ultraluminous Transient (FBUT). So far only a handful of them have been discovered, and we had never seen one soon after its occurrence due to their extremely fast evolution. Thanks to the high-cadence survey mode and the excellent performance of Subaru/HSC, we were able to perfectly catch this amazing phenomenon for the first time. The early multiband light-curve data bring some unique information to understand the origin of these amazing transients," said first author Jiang.

The data has stimulated intensive discussion about the origins of MUSSES2020J and a few other FBUTs, led by various researchers within the team including Kyoto University graduate student Kohki Uno, Kyoto University Associate Professor Keiichi Maeda, NAOJ Assistant Professor Takashi Moriya, and Kavli IPMU Senior Scientist Ken'ichi Nomoto.

The theoretical investigation is still ongoing, but the team has so far narrowed down the possibilities to a few scenarios, most of which involve an active compact object -- either a black hole or a highly magnetized neutron star -- to power these extremely bright objects.

"There is almost no doubt that an active compact object is involved, and it is a main reason why these transients are so different from normal supernovae. The remaining possibilities are an event where a star is tidally disrupted by a massive black hole, or a massive star collapse which is different from normal supernovae in a sense that it has probably left a highly active compact object like an accreting black hole. The very early-phase data provided for the first time for a class of FBUTs hints the existence of sub-relativistic outflow distinctly from a bulk of the slower ejecta, and this must be a key to solving the problem. We are currently checking the details of each model to robustly identify the origin of MUSSES2020J, with the strong constraint provided by this new observation," said Maeda.

"MUSSES2020J shows a similar light curve of AT 2018cow. The light curve of AT 2018cow is well-reproduced by the model of interaction between circumstellar matter and the ejecta of a pulsational pair-instability supernova (PPISN). The PPISN is the explosion of a very massive star which would collapse to form a black hole and eject the outer layer in a jet-like form. Therefore, it is possible that a similar PPISN model with a different amount of circumstellar matter can also explain the light curve of MUSSES2020J," Nomoto said.

Jiang's team will continue looking for the answer of the origin of this newly confirmed transient type by carrying out transient surveys with telescopes all over the world.

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Air pollution caused 2,780 deaths, illnesses, and IQ loss in children in Massachusetts in 2019

Air pollution remains a silent killer in Massachusetts, responsible for an estimated 2,780 deaths a year and for measurable cognitive loss in Bay State children exposed to fine particulate pollutants in the air they breathe, according to a new study by researchers at Boston College's Global Observatory on Planetary Health.

The study was supported by the Barr Foundation and is the first to examine far-reaching public health consequences of air pollution in the state on a town-by-town basis. The study found air-pollution-related disease, death and IQ loss occur in every city and town regardless of demographics or income level. Highest rates were in the most economically disadvantaged and socially underserved cities and towns.

The Boston College team estimates the cumulative impact on childhood cognitive development in Massachusetts in 2019 was a loss of almost 2 million Performance IQ points, or more than 2 IQ points for the average child, according to the report, published today in the journal Environmental Health. IQ loss impairs children's school performance and reduces graduation rates, the team noted.

"We are talking about the impacts of air pollution at a very local level in Massachusetts -- not just statewide," said lead author Boston College Professor of Biology Philip J. Landrigan, MD, director of the Observatory. "This report gives the people in every city and town the opportunity to see for themselves the quality of the air they and their families are breathing and the dangerous health implications for both adults and children as a consequence of air pollution."

"All of these health effects occurred at pollution levels below current EPA standards," Landrigan noted.

The average level of fine particulate pollution across Massachusetts in 2019 was 6.3 micrograms per cubic meter, and levels ranged from a low of 2.77 micrograms per cubic meter in Worcester County to a high of 8.26 in Suffolk County. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standard is 12 micrograms per cubic meter, and the World Health Organization's recommended guideline is 5.

"Clearly, current EPA air pollution standards are not adequately protecting public health," Landrigan said.

Town-by-town air pollution information is not typically available, given there are not enough air quality monitoring stations in the state. The team determined levels for all cities and towns using available data and computer modeling.

While Massachusetts meets federal clean air guidelines and air pollution in the U.S. has declined 70 percent since the passage of the Clean Air Act in the 1970s -- when Landrigan and other scientists successfully pushed for the removal of lead from gasoline -- unclean air at current levels still poses health hazards to both healthy individuals and those with other ailments or illnesses.

"We do not have the level of air pollution you see in China or India and because it is mostly invisible today people tend to forget about air pollution and we get complacent," Landrigan said. "We hope to break through this complacency and increase awareness. Air pollution is killing 2,780 people in Massachusetts each year, nearly 5 percent of all deaths in the state, and that is a big deal. Air pollution is something we can fix. We know the steps that need to be taken to reduce fatalities and the impact on our children and grandchildren. Now citizens in every city and town across the Commonwealth need to urge our elected officials to take those necessary steps."

Additional findings include:
 

• Of the 2,780 deaths attributable to air pollution in Massachusetts in 2019, at least 2,185 were due to lung cancer 1,677 to heart disease, 343 to chronic lung disease, and 200 to stroke.
• Air pollution was responsible for 15,386 cases of pediatric asthma and an estimated 308 low-birthweight babies (5.5 lbs. or less).

More than 95 percent of air pollution in Massachusetts results from the combustion of fossil fuels. Cars, trucks, buses, planes, trains and ships produced two-thirds of pollutant emissions-655,000 tons -- in 2017, the most recent year for which data were available. Power plants, industrial facilities, and home heating and cooking produced 283,000 tons. In all, these sources emitted 938,000 tons of pollutants.

Fossil fuel combustion is also the major source of the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that drive global climate change, which the researchers said should further incentivize Massachusetts to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning to cleaner fuels.

"Air pollution harms our environment and young people, and these burdens disproportionately impact environmental justice communities," said Kathryn Wright, the Barr Foundation's Senior Program Officer for Clean Energy. "Meaningful action on climate change requires us to swiftly address air pollution from transportation and our energy system and its many harmful effects."

Fine particulate air pollution is linked to multiple non-communicable diseases in adults, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, lung cancer and diabetes. Among infants and children air pollution increases risk for premature birth, low birthweight, stillbirth, impaired lung development, and asthma.

"All of these adverse health effects occur at fine particulate matter pollution levels below the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's current annual standard of 12 micrograms per cubic meter," said Landrigan. "So even for a state like Massachusetts, which registered below that standard, air pollution is a formidable public health threat that needs urgently to be addressed."

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'Junk' DNA could lead to cancer by stopping copying of DNA

Scientists have found that non-coding 'junk' DNA, far from being harmless and inert, could potentially contribute to the development of cancer.

Their study has shown how non-coding DNA can get in the way of the replication and repair of our genome, potentially allowing mutations to accumulate.

It has been previously found that non-coding or repetitive patterns of DNA -- which make up around half of our genome -- could disrupt the replication of the genome.

But until now scientists have not understood the underlying mechanism, or how it could contribute to cancer's development. In the new study, scientists at The Institute of Cancer Research, London, reconstituted the entire process of DNA replication in a test tube in order to understand it more completely.

The researchers were able to describe how repetitive patterns of DNA are copied during replication and how they are able to stall replication entirely -- increasing the risk of errors that can be an early driver of cancer. This vital knowledge may eventually lead to better drugs and treatments.

The researchers believe the work could also help to improve the diagnosis and monitoring of some cancers, such as bowel cancer, where common errors in copying the repetitive sequences of DNA indicate whether cancer is progressing.

The study, published in Nature Communications, was funded by Wellcome and the Royal Society, with additional support from The Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) itself.

Scientists at the ICR -- a charity and research institute -- found that when the DNA replication machinery encountered repetitive DNA, it was able to unwind the DNA strands, but it sometimes failed to copy the opposite DNA strand. This error could cause replication to stall, resulting in collapse of the replication machinery in a manner similar to that induced by DNA damage.

The findings lead scientists to believe that repetitive DNA sequences could trigger a damage response signal indicating that errors in DNA replication have occurred and require repair.

DNA damage and ensuing genome instability are known to promote cancer formation and progression, so the research strengthens the link between junk DNA and cancer.

It was scientists at the ICR who, in the 1960s, provided the first conclusive evidence that DNA damage is the fundamental cause of cancer. In the early 2000s, ICR researchers then showed that drugs called PARP inhibitors could be genetically targeted against cancers with DNA repair mutations.

Our researchers now hope that improved understanding of DNA replication, and how it can go wrong, might lead to new ways of treating the disease.

Study leader Dr Gideon Coster, Team Leader in Genome Replication at The Institute of Cancer Research, London, said:

"We wanted to understand why it seems more difficult for cells to copy repetitive DNA sequences than other parts of the genome. Our study suggests that so-called junk DNA is actually playing an important and potentially damaging role in cells, by blocking DNA replication and potentially opening the door to cancerous mutations.

"We now believe that repetitive DNA sequences trigger a response that is very similar to the one induced by DNA damage, which we know can lead to cancer. Our study therefore fundamentally advances our understanding of cancer, and I'm hopeful it will help us come up with new treatments in the future."

Professor Kristian Helin, Chief Executive of The Institute of Cancer Research, London, said:

"This study helps to unravel the puzzle of junk DNA -- showing how these repetitive sequences can block DNA replication and repair. It's possible that this mechanism could play a role in the development of cancer as a cause of genetic instability -- especially as cancer cells start dividing more quickly and so place the process of DNA replication under more stress.

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Skin: An additional tool for the versatile elephant trunk

A new study from Georgia Institute of Technology suggests that an elephant's muscles aren't the only way it stretches its trunk -- its folded skin also plays an important role. The combination of muscle and skin gives the animal the versatility to grab fragile vegetation and rip apart tree trunks.

The research, in collaboration with Zoo Atlanta, finds that an elephant's skin doesn't uniformly stretch. The top of the trunk is more flexible than the bottom, and the two sections begin to diverge when an elephant reaches more than 10%. When stretching for food or objects, the dorsal section of the trunk slides further forward.

The findings could improve robotics, which today are typically built for either great strength or flexibility. Unlike an elephant's trunk, the machines can't do both.

As an example, the study's authors point to soft robotics. Their fluid-filled cavities allow flexible movements but can easily break when forces are applied. The researchers say the elephant findings suggest that wrapping soft robotics with a skin-like structure could give the machines protection and strength while continuing to allow flexibility.

The paper is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) by the same Georgia Tech team that authored a study last summer about how elephants use their trunk muscles to inhale food and water.

"When people extend their tongue -- a muscle-filled, boneless tissue similar in composition to an elephant's trunk -- it stretches uniformly. We expected the same when we challenged an elephant to reach for food," said Andrew Schulz, the study's lead author and a Ph.D. student in Georgia Tech's George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering. He and the team filmed two African savanna elephants reaching for bran cubes and apples at Zoo Atlanta.

"But when we looked at our high-speed camera footage and plotted the trunk's movements, we were surprised. The top and bottom weren't the same at all," Schulz said.

After seeing the video, Schulz stretched the tissue of a dissected elephant to better understand the skin's elasticity. That's when he found that the top of the skin, which is folded, is 15% more flexible than the wrinkled bottom side. It's also when the team realized they weren't just seeing muscle movement on the video. They were also tracking a thick sheet of skin.

"Flexible skin folds are the elephant's innovation," said David Hu, Schulz's advisor and a professor in the Woodruff School and the School of Biological Sciences. "They protect the dorsal section and make it easier for the elephant to reach downward, the most common gripping style when picking up items."

The Georgia Tech study also found that an elephant trunk differs in another way from other boneless, muscle-filled appendages found in nature, such as squid and octopus tentacles. Instead of extending evenly, an elephant telescopically stretches its trunk like an umbrella, gradually lengthening in waves.

An elephant first extends the section that includes the tip of its trunk, then the adjacent section and so on, gradually working its way back toward its body. Schulz says the progressive movement towards the base is intentional.

"Elephants are like people: they're lazy," he said. "The section at the end of the trunk is 1 liter of muscle. The section closest to its mouth is 11-15 liters of muscle. An elephant will first stretch the end of its trunk, then the adjacent section, because they're easier to move. If an elephant doesn't have to work very hard to reach something, it won't."

Schulz said he had to rely on a drawing from 1908 when learning about trunk anatomy because scientists and engineers haven't done much research on the biomechanics of elephants during the last century. Part of his curiosity of elephants is based on helping them; he thinks a better understanding of the animals will lead to better conservation efforts. As a mechanical engineer, Schulz also sees the applications of robotics.

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'Black hole police' discover a dormant black hole outside our galaxy

A team of international experts, renowned for debunking several black hole discoveries, have found a stellar-mass black hole in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a neighbour galaxy to our own. "For the first time, our team got together to report on a black hole discovery, instead of rejecting one," says study leader Tomer Shenar. Moreover, they found that the star that gave rise to the black hole vanished without any sign of a powerful explosion. The discovery was made thanks to six years of observations obtained with the European Southern Observatory's (ESO's) Very Large Telescope (VLT).

"We identified a 'needle in a haystack'," says Shenar who started the study at KU Leuven in Belgium and is now a Marie-Curie Fellow at Amsterdam University, the Netherlands. Though other similar black hole candidates[ have been] -- proposed, the team claims this is the first 'dormant' stellar-mass black hole to be unambiguously detected outside our galaxy.

Stellar-mass black holes are formed when massive stars reach the end of their lives and collapse under their own gravity. In a binary, a system of two stars revolving around each other, this process leaves behind a black hole in orbit with a luminous companion star. The black hole is 'dormant' if it does not emit high levels of X-ray radiation, which is how such black holes are typically detected. "It is incredible that we hardly know of any dormant black holes, given how common astronomers believe them to be," explains co-author Pablo Marchant of KU Leuven. The newly found black hole is at least nine times the mass of our Sun, and orbits a hot, blue star weighing 25 times the Sun's mass.

Dormant black holes are particularly hard to spot since they do not interact much with their surroundings. "For more than two years now, we have been looking for such black-hole-binary systems," says co-author Julia Bodensteiner, a research fellow at ESO in Germany. "I was very excited when I heard about VFTS 243, which in my opinion is the most convincing candidate reported to date."

To find VFTS 243, the collaboration searched nearly 1000 massive stars in the Tarantula Nebula region of the Large Magellanic Cloud, looking for the ones that could have black holes as companions. Identifying these companions as black holes is extremely difficult, as so many alternative possibilities exist.

"As a researcher who has [debunked] -- potential black holes in recent years, I was extremely skeptical regarding this discovery," says Shenar. The skepticism was shared by co-author Kareem El-Badry of the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian in the USA, whom Shenar calls the "black hole destroyer." "When Tomer asked me to double check his findings, I had my doubts. But I could not find a plausible explanation for the data that did not involve a black hole," explains El-Badry.

The discovery also allows the team a unique view into the processes that accompany the formation of black holes. Astronomers believe that a stellar-mass black hole forms as the core of a dying massive star collapses, but it remains uncertain whether or not this is accompanied by a powerful supernova explosion.

"The star that formed the black hole in VFTS 243 appears to have collapsed entirely, with no sign of a previous explosion," explains Shenar. "Evidence for this 'direct-collapse' scenario has been emerging recently, but our study arguably provides one of the most direct indications. This has enormous implications for the origin of black-hole mergers in the cosmos."

The black hole in VFTS 243 was found using six years of observations of the Tarantula Nebula by the Fibre Large Array Multi Element Spectrograph ([FLAMES] -- ) instrument on ESO's[ VLT].

Despite the nickname 'black hole police', the team actively encourages scrutiny, and hopes that their work, published today in Nature Astronomy, will enable the discovery of other stellar-mass black holes orbiting massive stars, thousands of which are predicted to exist in Milky Way and in the Magellanic Clouds.

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Insects harbor over a thousand genes from microbes, which help them survive

Hundreds of millions of years ago, microbes and plants might have given insects an evolutionary advantage by passing genes to them through horizontal gene transfer. In a study published in the journal Cell on July 18, researchers report that more than 1,400 genes across 218 insect species, including butterflies and moths, that originated from bacteria, viruses, fungi, and plants. The study argues that these genes might have been essential for insect evolution by allowing them to develop beneficial traits in mating behavior, nutrition, growth, and adaptation to environmental changes.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is fairly common between microbes. For example, bacteria use this mechanism to transmit antibiotic-resistance genes between species, but scientists more recently have been systematically looking at the phenomenon between insects and microbes or plants.

"Previous studies have shown that HGT may have contributed to insect biodiversity, but nobody knew how large a role it plays in this process," says senior author Xing-Xing Shen, an evolutionary biologist at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China. "Since there are a lot of high-quality insect genomes available for our analysis, I thought that now is a good time to systematically investigate how prevalent HGT is in insects."

Shen's team at Zhejiang University started this project in collaboration with Antonis Rokas, an evolutionary biologist at Vanderbilt University by gathering 218 high-quality insect genome samples representing 11 of 19 species-rich orders of insects. With the data, they were able to draw an evolutionary tree, identify out-of-place genes that are more commonly found in non-animal genomes, and examine what factors contribute to the fate of HGT in insects.

"There were HGT events everywhere we looked," says Shen. "However, we don't know whether these transfers of genes are beneficial to the insects, or even the functions for most of these genes," says Shen. He enlisted help from another expert -- Jianhua Huang, who studies insect gene functions at Zhejiang University.

"Shen walked into my office with a list of more than 1,400 genes, and we had to decide where to start," Huang says. The team decided to validate the function of the most prevalent foreign gene without known functions in insects: LOC105383139.

"This gene was horizontally introduced into nearly all moths and butterflies from a donor in the bacterial genus Listeria," they report in the study, meaning this gene has persisted in the genome since the time of moths' and butterflies' common ancestor more than 300 million years ago.

They decided to delete this ancient gene from diamondback moths, a pest affecting broccoli and cabbage, and observe what kind of functions it has. "Surprisingly, we saw those moths lacking this gene cannot produce many viable eggs," Huang says. "Then, we found that the gene influences the male courtship behavior."

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To keep up with evolving prey, rattlesnakes tap genetically diverse venom toolbox

In the evolutionary arms race between rattlesnakes and their prey, rodents, birds and other reptiles develop resistance to the snakes' deadly venom to survive. But new research led by the University of Colorado Boulder and University of Texas at Arlington sheds light on how snakes manage to keep the upper hand: They maintain a broad and diverse toolkit of genes that encode snake venom, allowing them to adapt as local prey and conditions change.

The findings, published today in Nature Ecology and Evolution, help explain how rattlesnakes have kept up with prey species evolving resistance to their venoms over millions of years. This research overturns decades of thought on what factors shape venom gene evolution and venom variation, and sheds new light on why developing effective antivenom treatments for snakebites remains so challenging.

"We found these rattlesnakes had a more diverse venom repertoire, more genetic tools in the toolkit, than their venom composition alone might suggest," said Drew Schield, lead author on the paper and postdoctoral fellow in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at CU Boulder.

Snake venom, an evolutionary adaptation, is made up of different enzymes and toxins that enable snakes to capture their prey. For decades, biologists have thought that co-evolution between predator and prey would drive snake venom to become highly specialized: the venom evolving to effectively kill specific prey and unused venom gene genetic diversity disappearing along the way. Known in evolutionary biology as "directional selection" this process is like the sharpening of a knife -- while the weapon gets more deadly, it loses a bit of itself in the process.

The new study proposes that instead, "balancing selection" is the mechanism at play, an evolutionary process where multiple versions of a gene -- in this case, genes that encode venom proteins -- are maintained instead of eliminated. This could be the key to how snakes prevent themselves from going down evolutionary dead ends.

"The existence of these resistance mechanisms in prey led us to wonder: If there's selection pressure imposed back on the snakes, then it might make sense evolutionarily to have a more expanded venom arsenal," said Schield.

As rattlesnakes prey on a variety of animals, including mice, voles, birds and lizards, selection over time may not only maintain, but proactively select for a greater venom gene diversity, something no research has shown before.

"Our findings help explain decades of seemingly contradictory theory and evidence for what drives the extreme variation observed in snake venoms. It turns out that the arms-race between snakes and prey ends up favoring the constant re-shuffling of venom variants that are favored, leading to the retention of lots of venom variants over time, some of which are ancient," said Todd Castoe, co-author on the study and professor of biology at the University of Texas at Arlington.

Population level insights

During his work as a graduate student and postdoctoral researcher at the University of Texas at Arlington in 2019, Schield and his colleagues figured out where the venom genes reside in the rattlesnake genome, which up until that point was mostly a mystery. Now knowing the genetic architecture of venom as a trait (published in Genome Research), he realized scientists could investigate what evolutionary mechanisms have been operating on the venom genes.

Snake venom is a popular study subject, a promising model for understanding the origins of gene novelty. But previous studies in this field have not explored how selection has shaped this trait within closely related populations, so the researchers focused on select populations of rattlesnakes in Colorado, Montana, California and Idaho.

After scouting out locations where these snakes live, Schield and his co-authors traveled to a series of sites over several years in late spring and early summer from 2017 to 2020, where they collected 68 rattlesnakes belonging to two different species occupying the western United States in order to sample their blood, venom and take physical measurements.

They sequenced and analyzed genomes from these rattlesnake species, investigating genetic variation in regions of the genome housing venom genes. They found striking genetic diversity and strong evidence for natural selection maintaining multiple forms of different venom genes, adding to a growing body of evidence that balancing selection is more pervasive in nature than previously thought.

Based on the new study, Schield suspects that while directional selection may have driven the origins of venom, in more recent timescales, there may be an equilibrium shift towards balancing selection favoring diverse venom repertoires.

This may be one reason that snakebite is notoriously difficult to treat.

"These evolutionary mechanisms ramp up the complexity that you're contending with when you develop antivenoms, as venom composition within the same species but in different geographic regions might be totally different," said Schield.

Understanding how diverse venomous snake genomes truly are -- from rattlesnakes to cobras and coral snakes -- can inform advances in anti-venom therapeutics and save lives around the world, Schield said.

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Cooperation among strangers has increased since the 1950s

Despite common concerns that the social fabric is fraying, cooperation among strangers has gradually increased in the U.S. since the 1950s, according to research published by the American Psychological Association.

"We were surprised by our findings that Americans became more cooperative over the last six decades because many people believe U.S. society is becoming less socially connected, less trusting and less committed to the common good," said lead researcher Yu Kou, PhD, a professor of social psychology at Beijing Normal University. "Greater cooperation within and between societies may help us tackle global challenges, such as responses to pandemics, climate change and immigrant crises."

The researchers analyzed 511 studies conducted in the United States between 1956 and 2017 with a total of more than 63,000 participants. Those studies included lab experiments measuring cooperation among strangers. The research was published online in Psychological Bulletin.

The study found a small, gradual increase in cooperation across the 61-year period, which the researchers said may be linked to notable shifts in U.S. society. The increase in cooperation was associated with increases in urbanization, societal wealth, income inequality and the number of people living alone. The study cannot prove those factors caused an increase in cooperation, only that there is a correlation.

Increased cooperation has been linked with market competitiveness and economic growth in prior research. As more people live in cities and on their own, they may be forced to cooperate with strangers, said study co-author Paul Van Lange, PhD, a professor of social psychology at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.

"It's possible that people gradually learn to broaden their cooperation with friends and acquaintances to strangers, which is called for in more urban, anonymous societies," Van Lange said. "U.S. society may have become more individualistic, but people have not."

The studies that were analyzed occurred in lab settings primarily with college students as participants, so the findings may not be representative of real-life situations or of U.S. society as a whole. However, the researchers noted that prior studies have not found that levels of cooperation vary by gender or ethnicity in the U.S.

The study did not measure some other societal factors, such as levels of trust about strangers. Prior research has found a general decline in trust over several decades in the U.S.

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NASA Reveals Webb Telescope's first images of unseen universe

 The dawn of a new era in astronomy is here as the world gets its first look at the full capabilities of NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, a partnership with ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).

The full set of the telescope's first full-color images and spectroscopic data, which uncover a collection of cosmic features elusive until now, released Tuesday, are available at:

https://www.nasa.gov/webbfirstimages

"Today, we present humanity with a groundbreaking new view of the cosmos from the James Webb Space Telescope -- a view the world has never seen before," said NASA Administrator Bill Nelson. "These images, including the deepest infrared view of our universe that has ever been taken, show us how Webb will help to uncover the answers to questions we don't even yet know to ask; questions that will help us better understand our universe and humanity's place within it.

"The Webb team's incredible success is a reflection of what NASA does best. We take dreams and turn them into reality for the benefit of humanity. I can't wait to see the discoveries that we uncover -- the team is just getting started!"

NASA explores the unknown in space for the benefit of all, and Webb's first observations tell the story of the hidden universe through every phase of cosmic history -- from neighboring planets outside our solar system, known as exoplanets, to the most distant observable galaxies in the early universe.

"This is a singular and historic moment," said Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. "It took decades of drive and perseverance to get us here, and I am immensely proud of the Webb team. These first images show us how much we can accomplish when we come together behind a shared goal, to solve the cosmic mysteries that connect us all. It's a stunning glimpse of the insights yet to come."

"We are elated to celebrate this extraordinary day with the world," said Greg Robinson, Webb program director at NASA Headquarters. "The beautiful diversity and incredible detail of the Webb telescope's images and data will have a profound impact on our understanding of the universe and inspire us to dream big."

Webb's first observations were selected by a group of representatives from NASA, ESA, CSA, and the Space Telescope Science Institute. They reveal the capabilities of all four of Webb's state-of-the-art scientific instruments:
 

• SMACS 0723: Webb has delivered the deepest and sharpest infrared image of the distant universe so far -- and in only 12.5 hours. For a person standing on Earth looking up, the field of view for this new image, a color composite of multiple exposures each about two hours long, is approximately the size of a grain of sand held at arm's length. This deep field uses a lensing galaxy cluster to find some of the most distant galaxies ever detected. This image only scratches the surface of Webb's capabilities in studying deep fields and tracing galaxies back to the beginning of cosmic time.
• WASP-96b (spectrum): Webb's detailed observation of this hot, puffy planet outside our solar system reveals the clear signature of water, along with evidence of haze and clouds that previous studies of this planet did not detect. With Webb's first detection of water in the atmosphere of an exoplanet, it will now set out to study hundreds of other systems to understand what other planetary atmospheres are made of.
• Southern Ring Nebula: This planetary nebula, an expanding cloud of gas that surrounds a dying star, is approximately 2,000 light years away. Here, Webb's powerful infrared eyes bring a second dying star into full view for the first time. From birth to death as a planetary nebula, Webb can explore the expelling shells of dust and gas of aging stars that may one day become a new star or planet.
• Stephan's Quintet: Webb's view of this compact group of galaxies, located in the constellation Pegasus, pierced through the shroud of dust surrounding the center of one galaxy, to reveal the velocity and composition of the gas near its supermassive black hole. Now, scientists can get a rare look, in unprecedented detail, at how interacting galaxies are triggering star formation in each other and how the gas in these galaxies is being disturbed.
• Carina Nebula: Webb's look at the 'Cosmic Cliffs' in the Carina Nebula unveils the earliest, rapid phases of star formation that were previously hidden. Looking at this star-forming region in the southern constellation Carina, as well as others like it, Webb can see newly forming stars and study the gas and dust that made them.

"Absolutely thrilling!" said John Mather, Webb senior project scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. "The equipment is working perfectly, and nature is full of surprising beauty. Congratulations and thanks to our worldwide teams that made it possible."

The release of Webb's first images and spectra kicks off the beginning of Webb's science operations, where astronomers around the world will have their chance to observe anything from objects within our solar system to the early universe using Webb's four instruments.

The James Webb Space Telescope launched Dec. 25, 2021, on an Ariane 5 rocket from Europe's Spaceport in French Guiana, South America. After completing a complex deployment sequence in space, Webb underwent months of commissioning where its mirrors were aligned, and its instruments were calibrated to its space environment and prepared for science.

The public can also view the new Webb images Tuesday on several digital screens in New York City's Times Square and in London's Piccadilly Circus beginning at 5:30 p.m. EDT and 10:30 p.m. GMT, respectively.

The James Webb Space Telescope is the world's premier space science observatory. Webb will solve mysteries in our solar system, look beyond to distant worlds around other stars and probe the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it.

NASA Headquarters oversees the mission for the agency's Science Mission Directorate. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, manages Webb for the agency and oversees work on the mission performed by the Space Telescope Science Institute, Northrop Grumman, and other mission partners. In addition to Goddard, several NASA centers contributed to the project, including the agency's Johnson Space Center in Houston, Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Ames Research Center in California's Silicon Valley, and others.

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